A study recently published in Nature indicates that human activities have a negative effect on the biodiversity of wildlife hundreds of kilometres away. A research collaboration led by the University of Tartu assessed the health of ecosystems worldwide, considering both the number of plant species found and the dark diversity – the missing ecologically suitable species.  For the study, over 200 researchers among them one scientist from the Helmholtz Centre for Environmental Research (UFZ) and the German Centre for Integrative Biodiversity Research Halle-Jena-Leipzig (iDiv) studied plants at nearly 5,500 sites in 119 regions worldwide, including all continents.

At each site, they recorded all plant species on 100 m² and identified the dark diversity – native species that could live there but were absent. About 300 km² surrounding each site was considered the region affecting the site. This allowed researchers to understand the full potential of plant diversity at each site and measure how much of the potential diversity was actually present.  

The study revealed that in regions with little human impact, such as in the vast forest masses of North America or in Greenland’s tundra, ecosystems typically contain over a third of potentially suitable species, with other species remaining absent mainly due to natural reasons, such as habitats being too far apart or the lack of seed dispersers. By contrast, in forests of western and southern Europe and other regions heavily impacted by human activities, the sites studied contained only one out of five suitable species. Traditional biodiversity measurements, like simply counting the number of recorded species, did not detect this impact because natural variation in biodiversity across regions and ecosystems hid the true extent of human impact.  The level of human disturbance in each region was measured using the human footprint index. The index includes factors like human population density, land-use changes (i.e. urban development and conversion of natural to arable land), and infrastructure (roads and railways). The study found that plant diversity at a site is negatively influenced by human impact up to hundreds of kilometres away.   

According to the lead author of the study, Professor of Botany of the University of Tartu Meelis Pärtel, the findings indicate that biodiversity can also be reduced in ecosystems that have not been directly modified by humans but are located in areas where human activities have caused habitat fragmentation or have had a dispersed impact on natural areas, for example through pollution.  “This result is alarming because it shows that human disturbances have a much wider impact than previously thought, even reaching nature reserves. Pollution, logging, littering, trampling and human-caused fires can trigger local extinctions and prevent recolonisation,” explained Pärtel.   

Researchers found that the negative influence of human activity was less pronounced when at least 30% of the surrounding region remained relatively pristine. According to Pärtel, this supports the global nature conservation targets to protect about one third of the land.   The study highlights the importance of maintaining and improving ecosystem health beyond nature reserves. The concept of dark diversity provides a practical tool for conservationists to identify absent suitable species and track progress in restoring ecosystems.  The study was conducted thanks to the international research network DarkDivNet, which started in 2018. The network is led by the University of Tartu, and its partners include researchers from nearly two hundred research institutions in 37 countries.   

For the study, Lotte Korell and Dr Kristin Ludewig from the University of Hamburg recorded all the plant species at 31 sites in the Lüneburg Heath – mainly composed of mixed birch-oak forest. This type of forest is considered as semi-natural vegetation, as the soil conditions are very sandy and nutrient-poor. Grasslands and heathlands were also sampled occasionally. ‘In our study area, both the Human Footprint Index with close to 15 and the dark diversity with around 40 plant species can be considered relatively high compared with other regions’ says Lotte Korell. Although the Lüneburg Heath contains a large proportion of semi-natural areas, these values reflect the extent to which the landscape and biodiversity are influenced by humans.

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Contact
Dr Lotte Korell
Department Species Interaction Ecology at UFZ and iDiv
lotte.korell@ufz.de

Publication:
Meelis Pärtel, Riin Tamme, Carlos P. Carmona, Kersti Riibak, Mari Moora, Jonathan A. Bennett, Alessandro Chiarucci, Milan Chytrý, Francesco de Bello, Ove Eriksson, Susan Harrison, Robert John Lewis, Angela T. Moles, Maarja Öpik, Jodi N. Price, Vistorina Amputu, Diana Askarizadeh, Zohreh Atashgahi, Isabelle Aubin, Francisco M. Azcárate, Matthew D. Barrett, Maral Bashirzadeh, Zoltán Bátori, Natalie Beenaerts, Kolja Bergholz, Kristine Birkeli, Idoia Biurrun, José M. Blanco-Moreno, Kathryn J. Bloodworth, Laura Boisvert-Marsh, Bazartseren Boldgiv, Pedro H. S. Brancalion, Francis Q. Brearley, Charlotte Brown, C. Guillermo Bueno, Gabriella Buffa, James F. Cahill, Juan A. Campos, Giacomo Cangelmi, Michele Carbognani, Christopher Carcaillet, Bruno E. L. Cerabolini, Richard Chevalier, Jan S. Clavel, José M. Costa, Sara A. O. Cousins, Jan Čuda, Mariana Dairel, Michele Dalle Fratte, Alena Danilova, John Davison, Balázs Deák, Silvia Del Vecchio, Iwona Dembicz, Jürgen Dengler, Jiri Dolezal, Xavier Domene, Miroslav Dvorsky, Hamid Ejtehadi, Lucas Enrico, Dmitrii Epikhin, Anu Eskelinen, Franz Essl, Gaohua Fan, Edy Fantinato, Fatih Fazlioglu, Eduardo Fernández-Pascual, Arianna Ferrara, Alessandra Fidelis, Markus Fischer, Maren Flagmeier, T’ai G. W. Forte, Lauchlan H. Fraser, Junichi Fujinuma, Fernando F. Furquim, Berle Garris, Heath W. Garris, Melisa A. Giorgis, Gianpietro Giusso del Galdo, Ana González-Robles, Megan K. Good, Moisès Guardiola, Riccardo Guarino, Irene Guerrero, Joannès Guillemot, Behlül Güler, Yinjie Guo, Stef Haesen, Martin Hejda, Ruben H. Heleno, Toke T. Høye, Richard Hrivnák, Yingxin Huang, John T. Hunter, Dmytro Iakushenko, Ricardo Ibáñez, Nele Ingerpuu, Severin D. H. Irl, Eva Janíková, Florian Jansen, Florian Jeltsch, Anke Jentsch, Borja Jiménez-Alfaro, Madli Jõks, Mohammad H. Jouri, Sahar Karami, Negin Katal, András Kelemen, Bulat I. Khairullin, Anzar A. Khuroo, Kimberly J. Komatsu, Marie Konečná, Ene Kook, Lotte Korell, Natalia Koroleva, Kirill A. Korznikov, Maria V. Kozhevnikova, Łukasz Kozub, Lauri Laanisto, Helena Lager, Vojtech Lanta, Romina G. Lasagno, Jonas J. Lembrechts, Liping Li, Aleš Lisner, Houjia Liu, Kun Liu, Xuhe Liu, Manuel Esteban Lucas-Borja, Kristin Ludewig, Katalin Lukács, Jona Luther-Mosebach, Petr Macek, Michela Marignani, Richard Michalet, Tamás Miglécz, Jesper Erenskjold Moeslund, Karlien Moeys, Daniel Montesinos, Eduardo Moreno-Jiménez, Ivan Moysiyenko, Ladislav Mucina, Miriam Muñoz-Rojas, Raytha A. Murillo, Sylvia M. Nambahu, Lena Neuenkamp, Signe Normand, Arkadiusz Nowak, Paloma Nuche, Tatjana Oja, Vladimir G. Onipchenko, Kalina L. Pachedjieva, Bruno Paganeli, Begoña Peco, Ana M. L. Peralta, Aaron Pérez-Haase, Pablo L. Peri, Alessandro Petraglia, Gwendolyn Peyre, Pedro Antonio Plaza-Álvarez, Jan Plue, Honor C. Prentice, Vadim E. Prokhorov, Dajana Radujković, Soroor Rahmanian, Triin Reitalu, Michael Ristow, Agnès A. Robin, Ana Belén Robles, Daniel A. Rodríguez Ginart, Raúl Román, Ruben E. Roos, Leonardo Rosati, Jiří Sádlo, Karina Salimbayeva, Rut Sánchez de Dios, Khaliun Sanchir, Cornelia Sattler, John D. Scasta, Ute Schmiedel, Julian Schrader, Nick L. Schultz, Giacomo Sellan, Josep M. Serra-Diaz, Giulia Silan, Hana Skálová, Nadiia Skobel, Judit Sonkoly, Kateřina Štajerová, Ivana Svitková, Sebastian Świerszcz, Andrew J. Tanentzap, Fallon M. Tanentzap, Rubén Tarifa, Pablo Tejero, Dzhamal K. Tekeev, Michael Tholin, Ruben S. Thormodsæter, Yichen Tian, Alla Tokaryuk, Csaba Tölgyesi, Marcello Tomaselli, Enrico Tordoni, Péter Török, Béla Tóthmérész, Aurèle Toussaint, Blaise Touzard, Diego P. F. Trindade, James L. Tsakalos, Sevda Türkiş, Enrique Valencia, Mercedes Valerio, Orsolya Valkó, Koenraad Van Meerbeek, Vigdis Vandvik, Jesus Villellas, Risto Virtanen, Michaela Vítková, Martin Vojík, Andreas von Hessberg, Jonathan von Oppen, Viktoria Wagner, Ji-Zhong Wan, Chun-Jing Wang, Sajad A. Wani, Lina Weiss, Tricia Wevill, Sa Xiao, Oscar Zárate Martínez & Martin Zobel
Journal: Nature
Article Title: Global impoverishment of natural vegetation revealed by dark diversity
Article Publication Date: 02 April 2025
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-025-08814-5

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