Understanding Individual Differences in Sociability

In social species, individuals display varying levels of sociability — some are highly connected and social, while others interact less. This variation is influenced by multiple factors, including mood, past experiences, social rank, and genetics. However, the genetic and molecular processes that drive sociability have remained largely unclear until now.

Tracking Bee Behavior at the Genomic Level

To explore the genetic mechanisms behind social behavior, researchers studied western honey bees (Apis mellifera) using a combination of:

• Whole-genome sequencing
• Brain gene expression (transcriptome) analysis
• Automated behavioral observations
  

They collected adult bees from three colonies and tagged each one with tiny barcodes to monitor their interactions inside glass-walled observation hives.

Whole-genome sequencing of 357 bees uncovered 18 genetic variants linked to the likelihood of performing ‘trophallaxis’ — a behavior where bees share liquid food with nestmates. Notably, several of these variants were found within two genes — neuroligin-2 and nmdar2 — which share similarities to genes previously implicated in autism in humans.

Transcriptome sequencing also identified over 900 genes that were more highly expressed in the brains of bees that frequently interacted with their nestmates.

Ancient Molecular Roots of Sociability

The study reveals striking parallels in the genetic foundations of social behavior between humans and bees — species that diverged more than 600 million years ago. While sociability is a complex trait governed by numerous genes, these shared genomic elements suggest that core molecular building blocks of sociality may have been conserved over evolutionary time, even though humans and bees evolved social life independently.

The authors note:

“It is a central feature of all societies that group members often engage with one another, but vary in their tendency to do so. Combining automated monitoring of social interactions, DNA sequencing, and brain transcriptomics in honey bee colonies, we identified evolutionarily conserved molecular roots of sociability shared across phylogenetically distinct species, including humans.”

Advancing Social Behavior Research Through Technology

Lead researcher Ian Traniello adds:

“Social insects are ideal for whole-colony behavioral tracking, and the technology is such that we can monitor what each bee is doing throughout the majority of her life.

In this study, we sought to push things a step forward, thinking, ‘We can follow all of these animals, we know who they’re socially engaging via food-sharing interactions, we know how they move and where they spend their time. The honey bee molecular toolkit is vast and growing, and we can also explore the structure of the genome or gene expression patterns within the brain as they relate to variation in social interactivity.’ We asked: ‘How can we bring these technologies together, to ask general questions about the molecular underpinnings of social organization and test the hypothesis that some of these features might be conserved across species?’ And that’s exactly what we did.”

Access the Full Study

Read the open-access article in PLOS Biology here: https://plos.io/45UeLwl

Author countries: United States, United Kingdom
Funding: This study was funded by the European Union’s Horizon 2020 Research and Innovation Program (ERC-2017-StG Grant Agreement 757583, Brain2Bee), the Agriculture Research Service Award (8042-21000-291-047S), and the Lewis-Sigler Institute for Integrative Genomics. Funders had no role in the study design, data collection, analysis, or publication.

Summary

• Study links honey bee sociability genes to genes associated with human social behavior.
• Researchers used genome sequencing, brain transcriptomics, and automated behavior tracking.
• 18 genetic variants tied to food-sharing behavior (trophallaxis) were identified.
• Variants appeared in genes similar to those linked to autism in humans.
• Over 900 genes were more active in the brains of highly social bees.
• Findings suggest ancient, evolutionarily conserved genetic roots of social behavior across species.

Original Publication
Authors: Ian M. Traniello, Arian Avalos, Michael J. M. Gachomba, Tim Gernat, Zhenqing Chen, Amy C. Cash-Ahmed, Adam R. Hamilton, Jennifer L. Cook and Gene E. Robinson.
Journal: PLOS Biology
DOI: 10.1371/journal.pbio.3003367
Method of Research: Observational study
Subject of Research: Animals
COI Statement: Competing interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

Frequently Asked Questions

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Primatologists from the University of Warwick, in collaboration with the Max Planck Institute of Animal Behavior, have discovered how young orangutans acquire one of their most vital survival skills: building secure treetop nests.

Why Nests Matter

Nest-building is critical to orangutans, who spend their lives high in the forest canopy. A well-built nest provides:

• Safety from predators
• Protection from the weather
• Warmth during the night
• Even anti-mosquito benefits

Despite its importance, nest-building has often been overlooked in ape research.

“Nest-building is critical to survival in orangutans but is surprisingly not the focus of a lot of research. We previously reported that it takes multiple years for immature orangutans to learn to nest-build, but based on 17 years of observational data, this paper shows that this learning process is highly dependent on young animals carefully watching the nest-building of others,” said Dr. Ani Permana, lead author from the University of Warwick’s Department of Psychology.

Watching, Practicing, and Learning

Researchers noted that juvenile orangutans that “peered”—intentionally observed their mothers constructing nests—were significantly more inclined to engage in construction themselves. Their failure to observe resulted in infrequent practice thereafter, highlighting the significance of active observation.

The research indicated that juvenile orangutans focused particularly on the intricate phases of nest construction, including the incorporation of comfort features (pillows, linings, or roofing) and the utilisation of numerous trees, and engaged in these practices with greater intensity.

From Mothers to New Role Models

As they grow, immature orangutans expand their learning circle beyond their mothers, observing other individuals to gain new insights. This allows them to diversify their knowledge about both how to build and what materials to use.

Dr. Caroline Schuppli, senior author from the Max Planck Institute of Animal Behavior, explained:
“Aside from learning ‘how to’ build a nest, immature orangutans also appear to learn the ‘know-what’ of which materials to use. The choice of tree species is important, and infants—who primarily peer at their mothers—are more likely to select the same species their mothers use.

Just like human teenagers finding their own path, maturing orangutans increasingly peer at the nest-building of others and begin experimenting with the tree species those individuals use.

Ultimately, adult orangutans tend to revert to the nest materials used by their mothers, perhaps recognizing that the most effective methods had already been established. This consistent variation in nest materials across generations indicates that wild orangutan populations possess cultural elements that could be lost without the conservation of the species and their habitats.”

A Window Into Ape Culture and Evolution

The findings carry broader implications for understanding social learning in apes:

• Survival role: Nest-building is essential, showing social learning is fundamental to orangutan development.
• Complex learning: Orangutans can master multi-stage, intricate behaviors through observation and practice.
• Evolutionary significance: Since nest-building is an ancient behavior in apes, the study suggests that social learning has deep evolutionary roots.
  

Although tool use in orangutans has been extensively recorded, this marks the inaugural demonstration of observational social learning in nest-building, a behaviour crucial for daily survival.

Summary of Key Findings

• Young orangutans learn nest-building by watching and practicing over many years.
• Peering at mothers during construction is crucial—without watching, youngsters rarely practice.
• Juveniles pay most attention to the complex steps, like adding comfort elements.
• As they mature, they learn from other role models, diversifying their material choices.
• Adults often return to their mothers’ methods, suggesting cultural continuity across generations.
• Findings highlight both the cultural richness of orangutan behavior and the importance of conserving their habitats.

Original Publication
Authors: Andrea L. Permana, Junaidi Jaka Permana, Lara Nellissen, Eggi Septian Prayogi, Didik Prasetyo, Serge A. Wich, Carel P. van Schaik and Caroline Schuppli.
Journal: Communications Biology
DOI: 10.1038/s42003-025-08217-2
Method of Research: Experimental study
Subject of Research: Animals
Article Title: Observational social learning of “know-how” and “know-what” in wild orangutans: evidence from nest-building skill acquisition
Article Publication Date: 7-Jun-2025
COI Statement: The authors declare no competing interests.

Original Source: https://www.nature.com/articles/s42003-025-08217-2

Frequently Asked Questions

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What Is ‘Scrumping’?

A recent study conducted by academics at Dartmouth and the University of St Andrews introduces a name for a behaviour that has been long observed but never explicitly characterised in great apes: scrumping. The phrase denotes the act of collecting or appropriating fermenting fruits—usually those that have fallen from trees—by apes.

“We never bothered to differentiate fruits in trees from fruits on the ground,” says Nathaniel Dominy, the Charles Hansen Professor of Anthropology at Dartmouth and co-author of the paper, published in BioScience. “In other words, scrumping by no name at all just looks like eating fruit.”

Why It Matters for Human Evolution

The behavior has new significance due to a 2015 genetic study that found a single amino acid mutation in the last common ancestor of humans and African apes. This mutation increased their ability to metabolize alcohol by 40 times.

“It’s a fascinating idea, but nobody studying these ape species, or Asian apes, had the data to test it. It just wasn’t on our radar,” says Dominy. “The absence of a word for it has disguised its importance. We’re hoping to fill an important void in scientific discourse.”

The Origins of the Word

Scrumping originates from the mediaeval German term “schrimpen,” which signifies shrivelled or fermented. In modern England, scrumpy refers to a type of strong, cloudy apple cider (6–9% ABV). The new study seeks to give scientific legitimacy to the term in the context of primate behavior.

Observing Scrumping in Apes

To determine how widespread scrumping is, the researchers analyzed dietary records from chimpanzees, gorillas, and orangutans in the wild. They noted the animal’s height during feeding and the fruit’s typical growth level. If an ape consumed canopy-level fruit at ground level, it was deemed scrumping.

Key findings include:

• African apes (chimpanzees, gorillas) frequently scrump.
• Orangutans do not, supporting earlier findings that their ethanol-metabolizing enzymes are inefficient.
  

Alcohol and Evolutionary Advantage

The researchers propose that the ability to digest ethanol gave African apes several evolutionary advantages:

• Avoidance of climbing risks by feeding on fallen fruits
• Reduced competition with monkeys for unripe fruits in trees
  

“Scrumping by the last common ancestor of gorillas, chimpanzees, and humans about 10 million years ago could explain why humans are so astoundingly good at digesting alcohol,” says Dominy. “We evolved to metabolize alcohol long before we ever figured out how to make it.”

Alcohol and Ape Social Behavior

The social element of scrumping might also shed light on human alcohol culture, says Catherine Hobaiter, professor of psychology and neuroscience at St Andrews and co-corresponding author.

“A fundamental feature of our relationship with alcohol is our tendency to drink together, whether a pint with friends or a large social feast,” she explains. “The next step is to investigate how shared feeding on fermented fruits might also influence social relationships in other apes.”

Dominy believes the term “scrumping” could spread organically:
“These are great examples of words that we never knew we needed, until we did. If the term is useful, then it will catch on,” he says. “That’s natural selection at work!”

Key Takeaways of the Research

• Scrumping denotes the consumption of fermenting fruit from the ground by apes.
• The behavior may have played a crucial role in the evolution of human alcohol metabolism.
• African apes show this behavior frequently; orangutans do not.
• The term could help standardize observations in primate research.
• Alcohol consumption via fruit may have social as well as evolutionary consequences.
• Human alcohol tolerance may predate brewing by millions of years.

Original Publication
Authors: Nathaniel J Dominy, Luke D Fannin, Erin R Vogel, Martha M Robbins and Catherine Hobaiter.
Journal: BioScience
DOI: 10.1093/biosci/biaf102
Method of Research: Literature review
Subject of Research: Animals
Article Title: Fermented fruits: scrumping, sharing, and the origin of feasting
Article Publication Date: 31-Jul-2025

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The results contest conventional beliefs in aviation and indicate that female pilots may possess distinct advantages that warrant more acknowledgement in pilot training and assessment frameworks.

“These findings are exciting because they push us to rethink how we evaluate pilots,” Naila Ayala, the principal author of the study and a postdoctoral scholar at Waterloo’s Multisensory Brain and Cognition Lab, stated.

“We can’t assume that because two pilots are looking at the same things, they will react the same way. Our study shows that women may be better at keeping control and making decisions in stressful flight scenarios.” 

The study revealed that although male and female pilots exhibit virtually equivalent visual attention patterns and flight experience, female pilots generally commit less flight control errors at heightened stress levels.

This indicates that although both genders focused on the same material during a flight, women exhibited greater consistency and accuracy in their responses. The findings underscore the necessity of examining deeper indications beyond superficial metrics such as visual attention when assessing pilot performance.

The researchers employed a high-fidelity flight simulator to examine 20 seasoned general aviation pilots—10 females and 10 males—navigating a range of standard and emergency scenarios. Throughout each situation, the crew documented the pilots’ gaze and their responses.

The pilots donned eye-tracking glasses and executed standardised flight tasks, which encompassed unforeseen engine failures and landing obstacles, aimed at evaluating their responses under duress. This enabled researchers to collect data on visual attention and performance accuracy.

“Understanding how different people perform under pressure helps us build better training programs for everyone, safer cockpits, and more inclusive aviation systems,” said Suzanne Kearns, associate professor and director of the Waterloo Institute for Sustainable Aeronautics.  

“At a time when the industry is facing a pilot shortage, tapping into the full potential of all pilots, regardless of gender, is more important than ever.” 

The team anticipates that the findings will influence the development of future pilot training and evaluation standards by acknowledging a broader spectrum of skills and capabilities.

Original Publication
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1145/3715669.3723124
Authors: Naila Ayala, Suzanne Kearns, Elizabeth Irving, Shi Cao, Ewa Niechwiej-Szwedo
Article Title: Exploring gender differences in aviation: Integrating high-fidelity simulator performance and eye-tracking approaches in low-time pilots
Article Publication Date: 25 May 2025

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Empirical studies in psychology have examined the influence of mood on the perception of life’s purpose. Phenomenology has demonstrated that the embodied, first-person experience significantly shapes our perception of the world. In related disciplines, the notions of affordance, solicitation, and enaction (enactivism) have been sequentially introduced. These notions emphasise how human physical interactions with the environment shape and inform human perception and comprehension of their surroundings.

In a recent study, Professor Masahiro Morioka of the Faculty of Human Sciences at Waseda University sought to apply the mechanism not only to the perception of the outward environment but also to the perception of “meaning in life.” The findings of this study were disseminated online in Philosophia on June 4, 2025.

This study is a conceptual and theoretical examination of the essence of “meaning in life.” In the discourse on the meaning of life, researchers have frequently contended whether life’s significance is entirely subjective, meaning it exists only if the individual perceives it as such; entirely objective, indicating it exists independently of individual belief; or a synthesis of both perspectives. This study, however, disregards those arguments and instead investigates the development of “meaning in life” between an individual striving to live their actual life and the life they aspire to lead—and how that meaning is seen by the individual.

The paper presents a “Geographic Model of Meaning in Life,” which is an active exploration model. This concept posits that an individual’s exploration of life’s meaning, characterised by particular attitudes and convictions, provokes diverse responses from life itself. These responses may manifest as actual or potential experiences of life’s significance or suffering. The value of life manifests—both positively and negatively—as a multifaceted spatial arrangement that shapes human experience. This study posits that “meaning in life” should be comprehended as a geographical arrangement that aligns with an individual’s exploratory actions and their outlook on life.

The noteworthy definition as per Morioka is, “The geographic model of meaning in life is the whole set of patterns of combinations of lived experiences of the worthfulness of living a life that are experienced being activated by my action of probing into my life in the here and now, and this action is similar to the action of a blind person probing her way with a cane. This probing can be carried out with various attitudes or commitments towards life, such as positive, negative, reluctant, and so on. The worthfulness of my life is experienced differently corresponding to the attitudes or commitments I take when I probe into my life.”

This work signifies a paradigm change by considering both significant and tragic experiences as components of the same experiential landscape, examining “meaning in life” as a perceptual experience within that intricate topography. The integration of phenomenological technique into the philosophy of life’s meaning facilitated a transition that may connect philosophy and psychology, so fostering enhanced interdisciplinary collaboration.

Psychology has established both quantitative and qualitative metrics to assess individuals’ perceptions of life’s meaning. The current methodologies differ significantly; however, the “geographical model” introduced in this study examines the concept of life’s meaning from an entirely distinct perspective. It may provide novel insights for psychology and associated disciplines.

With eyes set on the future, Morioka remarks, “My next goal is to integrate this study with other ongoing approaches in the philosophy of life’s meaning: namely, the solipsistic approach to meaning in life and the liberation and recollection approach. Through such integration, I aim to build a new, systematic framework within the philosophy of life’s meaning.”

Original Publication
Authors: Masahiro Morioka.
Journal: Philosophia
DOI: 10.1007/s11406-025-00854-5
Method of Research: Meta-analysis
Subject of Research: Not applicable
Article Title: A Phenomenological Approach to the Philosophy of Meaning in Life
Article Publication Date: 4-Jun-2025
COI Statement: The authors declare no competing interests.

Original Source: https://www.waseda.jp/top/en/news/85369

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Experiencing the phenomena of face pareidolia occurs when one perceives faces or human-like expressions in ordinary items. A recent study conducted by the University of Surrey has examined how this phenomena captures our attention, perhaps offering insights for advertising in the promotion of future items.

The research, published in i-Perception, examined the distinctions between attention directed by averted gazes—when an individual looks away from another’s eyes or face—and attention directed by pareidolia—perceived face-like objects.

The researchers executed four “gaze cueing task” studies with 54 people to assess how attention is affected by the direction of another individual’s gaze. Participants consistently redirected their attention in response to the emergence of both averted gazes and pareidolia.

Nevertheless, the fundamental methods by which attention is attracted are markedly distinct. Although we are mainly attracted to the eye region of averted gazes, we are captivated by the holistic configuration of pareidolia’s “faces,” resulting in a heightened response and increased attentiveness.

Dr. Di Fu, a Lecturer in Cognitive Neuroscience at the University of Surrey, stated: 

“Our research shows that both averted gazes from real faces and perceived faces in objects can direct where we look, but they do so through different pathways. We process real faces through focusing on specific features, like the direction of the eyes. However, with face-like objects, we process their overall structure and where their “eye-like features” are positioned, resulting in a stronger attention response.” 

The study’s findings may have consequences that extend beyond an enhanced comprehension of information processing in the brain. Dr. Fu states:

“Our findings may have practical implications too, particularly in areas like product advertising. Advertisers could potentially incorporate face-like arrangements with prominent eye-like elements into their designs, increasing consumer attention and leaving a more memorable impression of their products.” 

Original Publication
Journal: i-Perception
DOI: 10.1177/20416695251352129

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