Understanding Individual Differences in Sociability

In social species, individuals display varying levels of sociability — some are highly connected and social, while others interact less. This variation is influenced by multiple factors, including mood, past experiences, social rank, and genetics. However, the genetic and molecular processes that drive sociability have remained largely unclear until now.

Tracking Bee Behavior at the Genomic Level

To explore the genetic mechanisms behind social behavior, researchers studied western honey bees (Apis mellifera) using a combination of:

• Whole-genome sequencing
• Brain gene expression (transcriptome) analysis
• Automated behavioral observations
  

They collected adult bees from three colonies and tagged each one with tiny barcodes to monitor their interactions inside glass-walled observation hives.

Whole-genome sequencing of 357 bees uncovered 18 genetic variants linked to the likelihood of performing ‘trophallaxis’ — a behavior where bees share liquid food with nestmates. Notably, several of these variants were found within two genes — neuroligin-2 and nmdar2 — which share similarities to genes previously implicated in autism in humans.

Transcriptome sequencing also identified over 900 genes that were more highly expressed in the brains of bees that frequently interacted with their nestmates.

Ancient Molecular Roots of Sociability

The study reveals striking parallels in the genetic foundations of social behavior between humans and bees — species that diverged more than 600 million years ago. While sociability is a complex trait governed by numerous genes, these shared genomic elements suggest that core molecular building blocks of sociality may have been conserved over evolutionary time, even though humans and bees evolved social life independently.

The authors note:

“It is a central feature of all societies that group members often engage with one another, but vary in their tendency to do so. Combining automated monitoring of social interactions, DNA sequencing, and brain transcriptomics in honey bee colonies, we identified evolutionarily conserved molecular roots of sociability shared across phylogenetically distinct species, including humans.”

Advancing Social Behavior Research Through Technology

Lead researcher Ian Traniello adds:

“Social insects are ideal for whole-colony behavioral tracking, and the technology is such that we can monitor what each bee is doing throughout the majority of her life.

In this study, we sought to push things a step forward, thinking, ‘We can follow all of these animals, we know who they’re socially engaging via food-sharing interactions, we know how they move and where they spend their time. The honey bee molecular toolkit is vast and growing, and we can also explore the structure of the genome or gene expression patterns within the brain as they relate to variation in social interactivity.’ We asked: ‘How can we bring these technologies together, to ask general questions about the molecular underpinnings of social organization and test the hypothesis that some of these features might be conserved across species?’ And that’s exactly what we did.”

Access the Full Study

Read the open-access article in PLOS Biology here: https://plos.io/45UeLwl

Author countries: United States, United Kingdom
Funding: This study was funded by the European Union’s Horizon 2020 Research and Innovation Program (ERC-2017-StG Grant Agreement 757583, Brain2Bee), the Agriculture Research Service Award (8042-21000-291-047S), and the Lewis-Sigler Institute for Integrative Genomics. Funders had no role in the study design, data collection, analysis, or publication.

Summary

• Study links honey bee sociability genes to genes associated with human social behavior.
• Researchers used genome sequencing, brain transcriptomics, and automated behavior tracking.
• 18 genetic variants tied to food-sharing behavior (trophallaxis) were identified.
• Variants appeared in genes similar to those linked to autism in humans.
• Over 900 genes were more active in the brains of highly social bees.
• Findings suggest ancient, evolutionarily conserved genetic roots of social behavior across species.

Original Publication
Authors: Ian M. Traniello, Arian Avalos, Michael J. M. Gachomba, Tim Gernat, Zhenqing Chen, Amy C. Cash-Ahmed, Adam R. Hamilton, Jennifer L. Cook and Gene E. Robinson.
Journal: PLOS Biology
DOI: 10.1371/journal.pbio.3003367
Method of Research: Observational study
Subject of Research: Animals
COI Statement: Competing interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist.

Frequently Asked Questions

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Primatologists from the University of Warwick, in collaboration with the Max Planck Institute of Animal Behavior, have discovered how young orangutans acquire one of their most vital survival skills: building secure treetop nests.

Why Nests Matter

Nest-building is critical to orangutans, who spend their lives high in the forest canopy. A well-built nest provides:

• Safety from predators
• Protection from the weather
• Warmth during the night
• Even anti-mosquito benefits

Despite its importance, nest-building has often been overlooked in ape research.

“Nest-building is critical to survival in orangutans but is surprisingly not the focus of a lot of research. We previously reported that it takes multiple years for immature orangutans to learn to nest-build, but based on 17 years of observational data, this paper shows that this learning process is highly dependent on young animals carefully watching the nest-building of others,” said Dr. Ani Permana, lead author from the University of Warwick’s Department of Psychology.

Watching, Practicing, and Learning

Researchers noted that juvenile orangutans that “peered”—intentionally observed their mothers constructing nests—were significantly more inclined to engage in construction themselves. Their failure to observe resulted in infrequent practice thereafter, highlighting the significance of active observation.

The research indicated that juvenile orangutans focused particularly on the intricate phases of nest construction, including the incorporation of comfort features (pillows, linings, or roofing) and the utilisation of numerous trees, and engaged in these practices with greater intensity.

From Mothers to New Role Models

As they grow, immature orangutans expand their learning circle beyond their mothers, observing other individuals to gain new insights. This allows them to diversify their knowledge about both how to build and what materials to use.

Dr. Caroline Schuppli, senior author from the Max Planck Institute of Animal Behavior, explained:
“Aside from learning ‘how to’ build a nest, immature orangutans also appear to learn the ‘know-what’ of which materials to use. The choice of tree species is important, and infants—who primarily peer at their mothers—are more likely to select the same species their mothers use.

Just like human teenagers finding their own path, maturing orangutans increasingly peer at the nest-building of others and begin experimenting with the tree species those individuals use.

Ultimately, adult orangutans tend to revert to the nest materials used by their mothers, perhaps recognizing that the most effective methods had already been established. This consistent variation in nest materials across generations indicates that wild orangutan populations possess cultural elements that could be lost without the conservation of the species and their habitats.”

A Window Into Ape Culture and Evolution

The findings carry broader implications for understanding social learning in apes:

• Survival role: Nest-building is essential, showing social learning is fundamental to orangutan development.
• Complex learning: Orangutans can master multi-stage, intricate behaviors through observation and practice.
• Evolutionary significance: Since nest-building is an ancient behavior in apes, the study suggests that social learning has deep evolutionary roots.
  

Although tool use in orangutans has been extensively recorded, this marks the inaugural demonstration of observational social learning in nest-building, a behaviour crucial for daily survival.

Summary of Key Findings

• Young orangutans learn nest-building by watching and practicing over many years.
• Peering at mothers during construction is crucial—without watching, youngsters rarely practice.
• Juveniles pay most attention to the complex steps, like adding comfort elements.
• As they mature, they learn from other role models, diversifying their material choices.
• Adults often return to their mothers’ methods, suggesting cultural continuity across generations.
• Findings highlight both the cultural richness of orangutan behavior and the importance of conserving their habitats.

Original Publication
Authors: Andrea L. Permana, Junaidi Jaka Permana, Lara Nellissen, Eggi Septian Prayogi, Didik Prasetyo, Serge A. Wich, Carel P. van Schaik and Caroline Schuppli.
Journal: Communications Biology
DOI: 10.1038/s42003-025-08217-2
Method of Research: Experimental study
Subject of Research: Animals
Article Title: Observational social learning of “know-how” and “know-what” in wild orangutans: evidence from nest-building skill acquisition
Article Publication Date: 7-Jun-2025
COI Statement: The authors declare no competing interests.

Original Source: https://www.nature.com/articles/s42003-025-08217-2

Frequently Asked Questions

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Nature-Inspired Innovation

A team of researchers from the University of California, Berkeley, the Georgia Institute of Technology, and Ajou University (South Korea) has uncovered how the unique fan-like propellers of Rhagovelia water striders enable them to maneuver rapidly across turbulent streams.

These millimeter-sized insects, also known as “ripple bugs,” use specialized ribbon-shaped fans on their legs that passively open and close like a paintbrush, ten times faster than the blink of an eye. Inspired by this, the team engineered a robotic version that incorporates self-morphing elastocapillary fans to replicate the insects’ agility without requiring extra energy input.

How the Fans Work

Unlike earlier assumptions that Rhagovelia’s fans relied solely on muscles, the study—published in Science—reveals that the fans instead morph passively using surface tension and elastic forces.

“Observing for the first time an isolated fan passively expanding almost instantaneously upon contact with a water droplet was entirely unexpected,” said Dr. Victor Ortega-Jimenez, an integrative biologist at UC Berkeley and lead author of the study.

This passive mechanism enables sharp turns in just 50 milliseconds and speeds up to 120 body lengths per second—on par with flying insects.

Collaboration Across Disciplines

The project was born when Dr. Ortega-Jimenez, intrigued by the ripple bugs during his postdoctoral work, joined Georgia Tech in 2020 and presented his findings to Dr. Saad Bhamla. Together, they expanded the collaboration to include Professor Je-Sung Koh’s group at Ajou University.

“I saw a real discovery hiding in plain sight. Often, we think science is a lone genius sport, but this couldn’t be farther from the truth. Modern science is all about an interdisciplinary team of curious scientists working together, across borders and disciplines to study nature and engineer new bioinspired machines,” said Dr. Bhamla.

Engineering the “Rhagobot”

Designing an insect-scale robot proved challenging until Ajou University researchers used high-resolution electron microscopy to decode the bugs’ fan structure.

“We initially designed various types of cylindrical-shaped fans… After numerous attempts, we overcame this challenge by designing a flat-ribbon-shaped fan… We eventually discovered that the Rhagovelia fan indeed possesses a flat-ribbon micro architecture, which had not been previously reported,” said Dr. Dongjin Kim, postdoctoral researcher at Ajou University and co-lead author.

This breakthrough led to the creation of the “Rhagobot”—a one-milligram insect-scale robot equipped with self-morphing fans capable of enhanced thrust, braking, and maneuverability.

“Our robotic fans self-morph using nothing but water surface forces and flexible geometry—just like their biological counterparts. It is a form of mechanical embedded intelligence refined by nature through millions of years of evolution,” said Professor Je-Sung Koh, senior author.

Unique Biomechanics

The ripple bugs’ fans combine collapsibility during recovery with rigidity during propulsion, overcoming long-standing limitations in small-scale robotics. Their strokes create complex vortices on water, resembling the wakes of flapping wings.

“It’s as if Rhagovelia have tiny wings attached to their legs, like the Greek god Hermes,” said Dr. Ortega-Jimenez.

Facing Turbulent Waters

Ripple bugs must endure highly turbulent streams while feeding, mating, and escaping predators. Despite their rice-grain size, they row tirelessly day and night.

“They literally row day and night throughout their lifespan, only pausing to molt, mate, or feed,” said Dr. Ortega-Jimenez.

For robotics, this endurance highlights the potential of fan-based designs in environments where turbulence challenges conventional machines.

“When designing small-scale robots, it’s important to account for the specific environment in which they will operate… The Rhagobot, for instance, can travel quickly along a flowing stream thanks to its intelligent fan structure, which is powered by surface tension and drag forces,” said Professor Koh.

Broader Implications

The study not only connects Rhagovelia’s fan microstructure to locomotion but also lays the groundwork for bioinspired microrobots capable of:

• Environmental monitoring
• Search-and-rescue operations
• Navigation of turbulent water-air interfaces
  

Summary

• Rhagovelia water striders use ribbon-shaped fans that passively morph using surface tension and elasticity.
• Fans enable extreme agility: sharp turns in 50 ms and speeds of 120 body lengths/second.
• Researchers replicated this mechanism in “Rhagobot,” an insect-scale robot with self-deploying fans.
• Collaboration between UC Berkeley, Georgia Tech, and Ajou University drove the discovery.
• Findings could advance aquatic robotics for environmental and rescue missions.

Original Publication
Authors: Victor M. Ortega-Jimenez, Dongjin Kim, Sunny Kumar, Changhwan Kim, Je-Sung Koh and Saad Bhamla.
Journal: Science
DOI: 10.1126/science.adv2792
Method of Research: Experimental study
Subject of Research: Animals
Article Title: Ultrafast elastocapillary fans control agile maneuvering in ripple bugs and robots
Article Publication Date: 21-Aug-2025

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A Landmark Archaeogenetic Study

Researchers at the Max Planck-Harvard Research Centre for the Archaeoscience of the Ancient Mediterranean examined ancient DNA from 230 individuals sourced from 50 archaeological sites in Georgia and Armenia. The research, co-led by Johannes Krause from the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology and Philipp Stockhammer from Ludwig Maximilians University Munich, reconstructs the genetic and cultural history of the region from the Early Bronze Age (approximately 3500 BCE) to the post-Migration Period (approximately 500 CE).

Mostly Constant Ancestry with Bronze Age Migrations

The results indicate that the Southern Caucasus maintained a profoundly entrenched native gene pool despite alterations in material culture.

“The persistence of a deeply rooted local gene pool through several shifts in material culture is exceptional,” says population geneticist Harald Ringbauer, who led the study at the Max Planck Institute. “This stands out compared to other regions across Western Eurasia, where many changes were linked to substantial movement of people.”

In the late Bronze Age, genetic evidence suggests migrations from Anatolia and the Eurasian Steppe. These movements resulted in cultural developments, novel burial practices, and economic transformations, including mobile pastoralism. Nevertheless, genetic intermingling subsequent to this period was frequently ephemeral or restricted to isolated instances.

Cranial Deformation: A Migratory Influence Turned Local Tradition

A striking discovery involved early Medieval individuals from the Iberian Kingdom (in present-day eastern Georgia) with intentionally deformed skulls—a practice historically linked to Central Eurasian Steppe nomads.

“We identified numerous individuals with deformed skulls who were genetically Central Asian, and we even found direct genealogical links to the Avars and Huns,” says lead author Eirini Skourtanioti. “However, our analyses revealed that most of these individuals were locals, not migrants. This is a compelling example of the cultural adoption of a practice that was likely disseminated in the area by nomadic groups.”

Liana Bitadze, head of the Anthropological Research Laboratory at Tbilisi State University, adds:

“Previously, we addressed this question through comparative morphometric analyses. Now, ancient DNA analysis has created a completely new line of evidence, helping us to reach more definitive answers.”

Urban Centers as Cultural and Genetic Hubs

The findings indicated that during Late Antiquity, urban centres and early Christian locations in eastern Georgia evolved into diversified population hubs.

“Historical sources mention how the Caucasus Mountains served both as a barrier and a corridor for migration during Late Antiquity. Our study shows that increased individual mobility was a key feature of the emerging urban centers in the region,” says co-lead author Xiaowen Jia.

A Crossroads of Civilizations

The Southern Caucasus has long stood at the intersection of Europe and Asia, serving as a melting pot of cultures, ideas, and genetic lineages. This study underscores its role as both a barrier and a conduit for human migration, setting a new benchmark for archaeogenetic research in historically underexplored regions.

Summary of Key Findings

• 5,000 years of stability in the local genetic profile despite cultural shifts.
• Migrations throughout the Bronze Age contributed genetic material from Anatolia and the Eurasian Steppe.
• Cranial deformity originated from migratory influences but was subsequently embraced locally.
• Urban centres during Late Antiquity emerged as focal points for cultural and genetic interchange.
• The Southern Caucasus is a pivotal area for comprehending the demographic history of Eurasia.

Original Publication
Journal: Cell
DOI: 10.1016/j.cell.2025.07.013
Article Title: The genetic history of the Southern Caucasus from the Bronze age to the Early Middle Ages: 5,000 years of genetic continuity despite high mobility
Article Publication Date: 7-Aug-2025

Original Source: https://www.mpg.de/25116448/0730-evan-population-history-of-the-southern-caucasus-region-150495-x

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What Is ‘Scrumping’?

A recent study conducted by academics at Dartmouth and the University of St Andrews introduces a name for a behaviour that has been long observed but never explicitly characterised in great apes: scrumping. The phrase denotes the act of collecting or appropriating fermenting fruits—usually those that have fallen from trees—by apes.

“We never bothered to differentiate fruits in trees from fruits on the ground,” says Nathaniel Dominy, the Charles Hansen Professor of Anthropology at Dartmouth and co-author of the paper, published in BioScience. “In other words, scrumping by no name at all just looks like eating fruit.”

Why It Matters for Human Evolution

The behavior has new significance due to a 2015 genetic study that found a single amino acid mutation in the last common ancestor of humans and African apes. This mutation increased their ability to metabolize alcohol by 40 times.

“It’s a fascinating idea, but nobody studying these ape species, or Asian apes, had the data to test it. It just wasn’t on our radar,” says Dominy. “The absence of a word for it has disguised its importance. We’re hoping to fill an important void in scientific discourse.”

The Origins of the Word

Scrumping originates from the mediaeval German term “schrimpen,” which signifies shrivelled or fermented. In modern England, scrumpy refers to a type of strong, cloudy apple cider (6–9% ABV). The new study seeks to give scientific legitimacy to the term in the context of primate behavior.

Observing Scrumping in Apes

To determine how widespread scrumping is, the researchers analyzed dietary records from chimpanzees, gorillas, and orangutans in the wild. They noted the animal’s height during feeding and the fruit’s typical growth level. If an ape consumed canopy-level fruit at ground level, it was deemed scrumping.

Key findings include:

• African apes (chimpanzees, gorillas) frequently scrump.
• Orangutans do not, supporting earlier findings that their ethanol-metabolizing enzymes are inefficient.
  

Alcohol and Evolutionary Advantage

The researchers propose that the ability to digest ethanol gave African apes several evolutionary advantages:

• Avoidance of climbing risks by feeding on fallen fruits
• Reduced competition with monkeys for unripe fruits in trees
  

“Scrumping by the last common ancestor of gorillas, chimpanzees, and humans about 10 million years ago could explain why humans are so astoundingly good at digesting alcohol,” says Dominy. “We evolved to metabolize alcohol long before we ever figured out how to make it.”

Alcohol and Ape Social Behavior

The social element of scrumping might also shed light on human alcohol culture, says Catherine Hobaiter, professor of psychology and neuroscience at St Andrews and co-corresponding author.

“A fundamental feature of our relationship with alcohol is our tendency to drink together, whether a pint with friends or a large social feast,” she explains. “The next step is to investigate how shared feeding on fermented fruits might also influence social relationships in other apes.”

Dominy believes the term “scrumping” could spread organically:
“These are great examples of words that we never knew we needed, until we did. If the term is useful, then it will catch on,” he says. “That’s natural selection at work!”

Key Takeaways of the Research

• Scrumping denotes the consumption of fermenting fruit from the ground by apes.
• The behavior may have played a crucial role in the evolution of human alcohol metabolism.
• African apes show this behavior frequently; orangutans do not.
• The term could help standardize observations in primate research.
• Alcohol consumption via fruit may have social as well as evolutionary consequences.
• Human alcohol tolerance may predate brewing by millions of years.

Original Publication
Authors: Nathaniel J Dominy, Luke D Fannin, Erin R Vogel, Martha M Robbins and Catherine Hobaiter.
Journal: BioScience
DOI: 10.1093/biosci/biaf102
Method of Research: Literature review
Subject of Research: Animals
Article Title: Fermented fruits: scrumping, sharing, and the origin of feasting
Article Publication Date: 31-Jul-2025

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The results contest conventional beliefs in aviation and indicate that female pilots may possess distinct advantages that warrant more acknowledgement in pilot training and assessment frameworks.

“These findings are exciting because they push us to rethink how we evaluate pilots,” Naila Ayala, the principal author of the study and a postdoctoral scholar at Waterloo’s Multisensory Brain and Cognition Lab, stated.

“We can’t assume that because two pilots are looking at the same things, they will react the same way. Our study shows that women may be better at keeping control and making decisions in stressful flight scenarios.” 

The study revealed that although male and female pilots exhibit virtually equivalent visual attention patterns and flight experience, female pilots generally commit less flight control errors at heightened stress levels.

This indicates that although both genders focused on the same material during a flight, women exhibited greater consistency and accuracy in their responses. The findings underscore the necessity of examining deeper indications beyond superficial metrics such as visual attention when assessing pilot performance.

The researchers employed a high-fidelity flight simulator to examine 20 seasoned general aviation pilots—10 females and 10 males—navigating a range of standard and emergency scenarios. Throughout each situation, the crew documented the pilots’ gaze and their responses.

The pilots donned eye-tracking glasses and executed standardised flight tasks, which encompassed unforeseen engine failures and landing obstacles, aimed at evaluating their responses under duress. This enabled researchers to collect data on visual attention and performance accuracy.

“Understanding how different people perform under pressure helps us build better training programs for everyone, safer cockpits, and more inclusive aviation systems,” said Suzanne Kearns, associate professor and director of the Waterloo Institute for Sustainable Aeronautics.  

“At a time when the industry is facing a pilot shortage, tapping into the full potential of all pilots, regardless of gender, is more important than ever.” 

The team anticipates that the findings will influence the development of future pilot training and evaluation standards by acknowledging a broader spectrum of skills and capabilities.

Original Publication
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1145/3715669.3723124
Authors: Naila Ayala, Suzanne Kearns, Elizabeth Irving, Shi Cao, Ewa Niechwiej-Szwedo
Article Title: Exploring gender differences in aviation: Integrating high-fidelity simulator performance and eye-tracking approaches in low-time pilots
Article Publication Date: 25 May 2025

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